The most eco-friendly way to shop for clothes, according to fashion experts

The fashion industry directly contributes to climate change and plastic pollution. It generates anywhere from 4 to 10 percent of global carbon emissions and in 2019, one study estimated that the fashion industry alone created 8.3 million tons of plastic pollution. 

Cheaply and quickly made clothes, a business model known as fast fashion, is driving the increase in the fashion industry’s environmental footprint, according to a scientific review published in the journal Nature in 2020.

To understand what that means for people, wildlife, and the planet, we spoke with Emma Håkansson, founding director of Collective Fashion Justice and Karen Pearson, a chemist at the Fashion Institute of Technology in New York City. They explained what “fast fashion” really means—and how consumers and institutions alike can respond.

These interviews have been edited for length and clarity. 

Nunn: How do you define fast fashion, and why is it so environmentally harmful? 

Håkansson: It’s about the quantity and pace at which fashion is produced. We used to make clothing that was tailored specifically to a person, and they wore that clothing for years. Now we have 52, if not more, “micro seasons” in the fashion world. Research from the Hot or Cool Institute says that Western consumers can only afford, within planetary boundaries, to buy five newly made garments a year. Many consumers are buying 10 times more than that. Fashion as a concept can be about style and expressing yourself as an individual, but this system prioritizes profit over longevity and creativity.

Pearson: [Fast fashion is about] a lack of adhering to the traditional four to six annual season cycle in favor of high-volume, low-cost production. It’s this large number of “seasons” and collections that makes it “fast.” We are producing way more than is needed and doing it cheaply. 

Nunn: Sustainable fashion, by contrast, is often criticized as financially inaccessible. Is that perception accurate? How can people with limited income buy more sustainably made clothes?

Håkansson: Ethical fashion is more expensive.…. Paying a living wage and protecting land and labor costs more. We have to reconsider the true “cost” of clothing, which is why I also really encourage people to try to make their own clothing at least once, because you will very quickly realize that there’s a reason why ethically made garments cost more!

But the most sustainable way to dress is to not buy new things, and everyone has access to that. Fast fashion isn’t sustained by people with limited income, it’s driven by high-volume consumption among those with disposable income. It’s important to acknowledge the reality of who funds fast fashion. And it’s important to not let luxury fashion off the hook. It can also be made in a way that is unsustainable and unethical, just at a high price point.

Pearson: Well-made, higher-quality clothing often comes with greater transparency in the supply chain. It can cost more upfront, but it’s designed to last longer, so the [cost] balances out over time. The growth of the secondhand market has also made high-quality, even luxury, fashion far more accessible at lower price points. By buying secondhand, you extend a garment’s life and reduce its overall carbon footprint. For people on a tight budget, the most responsible choice may simply be buying one versatile, durable piece instead of five cheaper ones.

Nunn: Thrifting is widely seen as a climate-friendly alternative. Is it truly as sustainable as it appears? 

Håkansson: It’s encouraging that buying vintage and secondhand has become more popular. It’s one of the most sustainable ways to shop, and historically it was driven by economic necessity, not trend. But even when shopping secondhand, it’s important not to carry over a fast-fashion mindset. If we treat resale like an endless cycle—buying heaps of items we don’t truly love because we can always resell them—we overlook the environmental costs of shipping and repeated consumption. Vintage shopping works best when it’s curated and intentional: asking, “Do I really need this, or do I just want it?” That said, it’s still far more responsible than buying something brand new that requires fresh resources to be extracted from the Earth.

Pearson: When you donate high-quality clothing that still has life in it, you’re often supporting local nonprofits and community partners who rely on resale to fund programs for marginalized groups. The problem is donating low-quality clothing that can’t be resold. Much of that excess ends up shipped to countries in the Global South, where it can overwhelm local markets and waste systems, essentially exporting our textile waste abroad. That’s why donation quality matters, and why we also need stronger textile recycling systems at home for items that truly can’t be worn again.

Nunn: People are exposed to so many trends on social media. How can we as consumers avoid that social pressure?  

Håkansson: Foster your own sense of style and step off the trend cycle. Just because something is being marketed as essential doesn’t mean it’s right for you, and the best way to avoid the environmental cost of “keeping up” is to shop your own wardrobe first! Buying fewer clothes is the single most important thing we can do to limit our climate impact. After that, material choices matter, because most of a garment’s footprint comes from its raw materials. Animal-derived fibers like leather, wool, and cashmere can carry especially high methane impacts, while fossil-fuel–based synthetics also come with significant costs. 

Pearson: I try to think about my wardrobe as a whole and choose pieces that are genuinely versatile. The best items are the ones you can dress up or down—I have a simple black sweater wrap I’ve worn to a black-tie event, to regular work meetings, and even to a bonfire with jeans. By just changing accessories and styling, the same piece works in completely different settings. Focusing on that kind of versatility means you need fewer clothes overall and get far more use out of what you own.

Nunn: What do you think of clothing rental services? Do these models meaningfully reduce environmental impact?   

Håkansson: Rental can be a really good tool for special events, but it shouldn’t reinforce the idea that you need something new every time. It’s fine to have one special event dress that you own and wear! And I do think it's important that those business models operate in a way that's fair to the consumer, because sometimes rentals are so expensive, people might feel as though they may as well just buy something new that's cheaper.

Pearson: It can be a strong option, as it allows you to wear items that would carry a high carbon footprint if purchased new, but without long-term ownership. While shipping and packaging can raise environmental concerns, some companies are improving their systems with reusable garment bags and minimal waste. Overall, these evolving business models are encouraging. They show real progress toward reducing the carbon impact of textiles while giving consumers more flexible, lower-waste ways to access fashion.

Nunn:  When you decide to buy something new, what standards or principles guide that choice and your approach? 

Håkansson: I adhere to that rule of five new garments a year. Anything else has to be vintage or secondhand. Beyond that I will not buy new clothes unless I know that they are made by a person who was paid a living wage, which about two percent of clothes makers aren't. I want to know what the fiber is, and I won’t buy products made from fossil fuel materials.

Pearson: My entire wardrobe is filled with things that would loosely be defined as classics. If I’m buying something, I am looking for something that is higher quality and that will provide multiple functions. If you can keep a garment in use for a longer period of time, you reduce its carbon footprint dramatically. If there’s something that I would only wear a handful of times, it doesn't take up real estate in my closet. I choose things that will have a longer life and that are made out of higher quality materials.